The Riddler Heraclitus

Heraclitus of Ephesus (c. 535 - 475 B.C)

was a pre Socratic Philosopher from Ephesus, on the Ionian coast of modern day Turkey. He regarded himself as self taught and pioneer of wisdom. He propounded a distinctive theory which he expressed in oracular language therefore, he was sometimes known as the "Riddler" or "Obscure" for the deliberate difficulty and unclearness of his teachings. He could be categorised as the first Existential philosopher, whose ideas have been revitalized in a more systematic and acceptable way in modern philosophy. He is best known for his quote "We both step and do not step in the same river. We are and not". One interpretation is, it is not possible to step twice into the same river, according to Heraclitus, nor to touch mortal substance twice in any condition: by the swiftness and speed of its change, it scatters and collects itself again - or rather, it is not again and later but simultaneously that it comes together and departs, approaches and retires.

Life

Little is known of his life, the main source of information about him is accounts of notable doxographer Diogenes Laertius. He was born in Ephesus(modern day Turkey) in an rich aristocratic family. He advocated the kingship in favour of his brother, and had no interest in politics and power. As a youth , he was a prodigious and he claimed to have taught himself everything by a process of self enquiry.

He deliberately made his teachings obscure because he believed that truth can only be found by those who are willing to dive deeper in enquiry of nature or self questioning. He is also sometimes known as the "Weeping Philosopher" because he was a misanthrope and a loner which resulted in depression, later in life he wandered the mountains eating only grass and herbs. 

Philosophical ideas

1) Flux and Unity of opposites :

"All things come into being through opposition and all are in flux like a river."

Heraclitus says that the very nature of life is flux, is change, and that to resist this change is to resist the essence of our existence. He believes flux and unity or contending of opposites are necessary for life similar to yin and yang theory of Chinese philosophy. He observes that human condition is chiefly characterised by strife, by the coming together and pulling away of opposing forces. From the strain of binding opposites comes harmony and change gives rest. He criticises Homer who said, " would that strife might perish from among god and men", 

 for there would not be harmony without opposites ie high and low notes , nor living things without male and female, which are opposites. We must recognize that war is common, strife is justice and all things come into being and pass away through strife. While people lament this strife equating with suffering because they lack understanding as  people prefer being oblivious to the logos, ignorant, asleep in their own private worlds and depend on their senses i.e eyes and ears for enquiry about the self and the world .

"Though the logos is as I have said, men always fail to comprehend it, both before they hear it and when they hear it for the first time. For though all things come into being in accordance with this logos, they seem like men without experiences, though in fact they do have experience both of words and deeds such as I have set forth, distinguishing each thing in accordance with its nature and declaring what it is. But other men are as unaware of what they do when awake as they are when they are asleep. " ~Heraclitus

In Greek, Logos means `the word' but also means `to speak' and can also refer to `conveying thought' and the Logos of Heraclitus may most neatly fit the latter meaning. The logos is natural, universal, rational thought by which universe came into being by which it is maintained .The Logos constantly `conveys thought' to human beings but the message is missed because of the consistent refusal of people to recognize the natural order in their own lives.

“Men forget where the way leads and what they meet with every day seems strange to them. We should not act and speak like men asleep.” 

Heraclitus compared most people understanding to those that of asleep. Only the philosopher those who pursue truth is fully awake and fully alive. He quotes "Thinking is  a sacred disease and sight is deceptive." "It is necessary to take what is common as our guide, however though this is universal, the many lives as if each individual has his own private wisdom." 

"Every one of us gladly turns away from his problems; if possible, they must not be mentioned, or, better still, their existence is denied. We wish to make our lives simple, certain, and smooth, and for that reason problems are taboo. We want to have certainties and no doubts - results and no experiments- without even seeing that certainties can arise only through doubt and results only through experiment."

For Heraclitus, logos is an ever-living fire, which is observable in nature and yet human beings resist the natural movement of life and cling to what is known and considered safe. This clinging is unnatural and one's inability to embrace change and accept conflict as natural and necessary part of one's life causes pain and disappointment one so often experience. One causes the problems in life through refusal to accept life for what it is -- flux.

“The kosmos works by harmony of tensions, like lyre and bow. Good and evil are one. On the one hand God sees all as well, fair, and good; on the other hand a human being sees injustice here, justice there. Justice in our minds is strife. We cannot help but see war makes us as we are.”

“People do not know how what is at variance agrees with itself. It is an attunement of opposite tensions like that of the bow and the Iyre." Heraclitus believes that an unapparent connection links many things more firmly than an apparent and concrete one. He observes that "Nature loves to hide"  stating that a hidden and even secret harmony exists, which is more precious than an obvious one and an unapparent harmony is stronger than an apparent one. A harmony exists even if there is an apparent competition between the opposites, since any competition conceals or hides the attraction and attraction induces union. Thus, the nature likes to hold its secrets.

2) Wisdom (Theory of Knowledge or Epistemology) and Moral Philosophy:

 

"Much learning does not teach understanding."

"A knowledge of many things does not teach one to have intelligence but those who love wisdom must investigate many things." The profound knowledge based on experience and gained by enquiry into a wide spectrum of things may help in uncovering the reality and truth which mostly lie concealed. Wisdom is apart from the mediocrity, it is isolated from the exterior influences, is a unique experience. However, real knowledge, the absolute truth is not human but divine since human wisdom is inefficient even primitive in comparison with the divine one.

"Wisdom is the oneness of mind that guides and permeates all things." Those who speak with insight should base themselves firmly on that which is common to all. Thus, wisdom consists in telling truth, as well as behaving and acting in accordance with the real nature of things. Heraclitus says,

 "We are most nearly ourselves when we achieve the seriousness of a child at play."

All people ought to know themselves, being even-minded, since all humans have the capacity to self-knowing and sound thinking.Otherwise, it is prudential and rational for men to conceal their ignorance.

3) Existential Principles: Repetition and Relativity

The world as a whole is an eternal repeated sequences of cycles, each of which emerges out of fire and ends in fire. He quotes, "this world .... ever was, and is, and shall be an ever-living fire, in measures being kindled and in measures being going out." By  cosmic rule, a day yields night and a night yields day. The summer yields winter and the winter yields summer. All things change and there is a continuous repetition of physical phenomena.

Heraclitus claims that relativity dominates on every phenomena. Thinks are whole and not whole, being brought together and been separated.Some are consonant and some dissonant. The Universe is a continuous state of dynamic equilibrium, where as at the same time all things are one. For example , the road up and down is one and the same. In the circumference of a circle beginning and end are the same. Even good and ill are one. Everyday seems equal to the rest.He quotes, 

"Immortals are mortals, mortal are immortals, living their death, dying their life."

"the universe is divisible and indivisible,  generated and ungenerated, mortal and immortal, Word and Eternity, Father and Son, God and Justice."

According to heraclitus, The fire, light and truth are always unchanged and eternal since they are original and genuine in their existence. 

The sun which is an everlasting fire, illuminates the entirety, travels the heaven continuously and never oversteps its measures in its course thus, plays a fundamental role in timing, setting the boundaries of the morning and evening. Timing is a function of lightning, personal time or interior time is changeable parameter which depends upon the mental condition of the person. The spiritual light illuminates the mind on the rhythms of of personal internal life. The lack of consciousness entails lack of personal time and profound dementia entails timeless time. If man cannot see the internal sun, he would live in darkness. Thus, seeing is grasping in light whereas the spiritual seeing is a grasping in truth. Eyes are more accurate witness of the reality than ears, however both of them are poor witnessess for men who possess uncomprehending souls.Human being is the one who can kindle fire, who understands the power of light and who is able to touch the truth and be illuminated by divine light.

4) Soul 

For Heraclitus, 

the soul is a part of the omnipresent logos, where the essence of the individual soul is to be found in its ability to get as close to logos as possible. This soul is fiery in nature, generated out of other substances, but is limitless in dimension.  "A dry psyche, a soul liberated from passions, is wiser and the best". Psyche is the source not only of life, but also of reason and rational control. The soul should be purified from passions vices and particularly from insolence since there is greatest need to extinguish insolence than a blazing fire, but we must admit that it is always difficult to fight passion. He quotes, "It is difficult to fight against pleasure than anger." 

According to Heraclitus, it seems soul is not a permanent entity and is always subjected to change. He quotes, "To soul it is death to become water, to water death to become earth, but from earth water is born, and from water soul." The soul is always changing, it keeps dying and becoming alive again even during one's lifetime. The individual soul can"fall asleep", and thus lose its connection with the pervasive logos, which would mean its separation from the source of the "ever-living fire", and thus, separation from life and a journey into death. The essence of soul is reflected in its ability to get closer to the logos. But logos of heraclitus is eternal and therefore one may achieve immortality by being closer to the logos.

An excellent man is equal to ten thousand. The best ones chose the path of wisdom and desire a name honored forever. He/she focuses on everlasting values rather than transient ones. The character of person plays a determining role on his\her fate. The souls of the best (honest,righteous and virtuous),  seem to be assured of deification and immortality.

Five Philosophical ideas of Laozi for a good life

What is the best book about philosophy one could look at? For Lao Tzu, it wasn’t a volume (or a scroll) but the book of nature. It is the natural world, in particular its rocks, water, stone, trees and clouds, that offers us constant, eloquent lessons in wisdom and calm – if only we remembered to pay attention a little more often.

We live in the  age of science and technology where everything is dynamic . The society we live in is extremely competitive,  the survival of the fittest mentality is deeply entrenched in our culture. We believe that to be successful it is important that we must have drive, commitment and determination , " we should never give up" ,  "never compromise" etc . These thoughts can stir up anxieties , make it harder for us to cope  and acts as poison in certain cases. For these cases Laozi's Daoism philosophy acts like an ideal antidote. To flow with the changing times , we need to embrace changes and stop clinging on to the past so that we can enjoy the life fully. 

1) "To the mind that is still,

            The whole Universe surrenders."

 If we remain busy and too preoccupied with anxiety or ambition, we will miss a thousand moments of the human experience that are our natural inheritance.We need to let go of our schedules, worries and complex thoughts for a while and simply experience the world. Can you make the grass grow quickly by pulling it? Obviously no, we need to wait, nourish it with water and be patient.  It is particularly important that we remember that certain things—grieving, growing wiser, developing a new relationship,—only happen on their own schedule, like the changing of leaves in the fall or the blossoming of the bulbs we planted months ago.

Laozi beautiful said that "Nature doesn't hurry , yet everything is accomplished. "

A river rarely takes a straight course, meandering instead through the natural shape of the landscape, keeping to the lowest points, moving around mountains and hills. But the water keeps flowing powerfully and eventually reaches the sea.Like nature, our own achievements can take time, and this is no bad thing. Thus, we ought to take more time for stillness and  simply experience the world as it is.  

When we are still and patient, we also need to empty our mind from frivolous thoughts that hinders us from observing what is really important. We should keep in mind that “the usefulness of a pot comes from its emptiness.” Lao Tzu said. “Empty yourself of everything, let your mind become still.” We need to be awake of the surroundings ie the way the birds fly, the way our loved ones laugh and talk, the way trees and plants dance when the wind passes by and the feeling against our face etc . These experiences reconnect us to parts of ourselves and brings us closer to the harmony of nature.

2) "Life is a series of natural and spontaneous changes.

        Do not resist them.
            That only causes sorrow."

The path of least resistance is sometimes the best path. The world is won by those who let it go. But when you try and try, the world is beyond winning. By letting it go it all gets done. 

“When I let go of what I am,

  I become what I might be. "

Like the caterpillar, you have to let go of what you are if you are to become a beautiful butterfly. To be in touch with our real selves , we need to let go of our failures, sorrows, regrets, old values and beliefs that are holding us back from our true potential.

In Lao Tzu’s eyes, most of what is wrong with us stems from our failure to live ‘in accordance with nature’. Our ego, our envy, our rage, our manic ambition, our frustrated sense of entitlement, all of it stems from our failure to live as nature suggests we should. 

Lao Tzu liked to compare different parts of nature to different virtues.For instance, Laozi said, “The best people are like water, which benefits all things and does not compete with them. It stays in lowly places that others reject. This is why it is so similar to the Way (Dao).” 

Each part of nature can remind us of a quality we admire and should cultivate within ourselves—being adaptable like water, to have the strength and dignity of the mountains, the resilience of trees, the kindness and cheerfulness of birds and flowers etc. The idea that the contemplation of nature is a source of perspective and tranquility is well known in theory, but so easy to overlook because we take it for granted – and never give it the time and focus required.

3) " Those who have knowledge, don't predict 

            Those who predict, don't have knowledge."

This quote should be viewed open-mindedly. Here, Laozi is being euphemistic and particularly referring to the knowledge of Tao. Knowledge and prediction are phenomena that cannot be isolated from each other. Knowledge does help in prediction and predictions can be beneficial as well. But it is also crucial to use knowledge wisely in order to make sound predictions. 

What he really wants us to question is: only those who are thirsty for knowledge make predictions, invite other knowledge seekers to prove or disprove the predictions, and in the process create new knowledge. Thus, they have delved deep into their chosen area of knowledge, have reached the boundary of the knowledge - or in the words of Lao Tzu: “don’t have knowledge” - are forced to make predictions to explore the next frontier.

On the other hand, those who have absolute knowledge, like the creationists, do not entertain the idea of enquiry of assumptions and predictions. Indeed, those who predict are wise because they know that they have insufficient knowledge. They try to predict where the next fountain of knowledge may be found. 

"Those who know the Tao do not brag.

Those who brag do not know the Tao.

Put senses and desires under control.

Blunt the sharpness of the powerful,

and untangle the knot of the powerless;

soften the glare of the noble,

and stay with the humble.

This is the state of being one with the Tao.

Those obtaining this state

cannot be got closer or drifted apart,

benefited or harmed,

ennobled or humiliated.

Thus, they are truly respected by the people. "

Laozi talks about the attitude and its related behaviour of the true follower of Tao/Dao . If you speak about the Tao while feeling of yourself as superior, you are not a true follower of the Tao and do not actually know the Tao. The reason behind this is that the Tao is the innermost nature of all beings. Therefore, the Tao works behind the scenes and can represents the spirit of true humility, and benefits all beings without harming them or without competing with them for anything. The true followers of the Tao follow its guidance and always remain humble. Thus, they do not brag and show off, and do not hurt the feeling of others. And that is why they are truly respected by them.

In the end, life is unpredictable. The wind blows as it will, and life takes us in its own direction. Despite our search for certainty and a clear vision of the future, we cannot know what the future holds for us, what new lands we shall discover when our ship has been blown off course across the sea. All we can do is be open to possibilities , keep a vigilant eye for danger and be patient. 

4.) " Be content with what you have.

           Rejoice in the way things are."

We spend a great deal of time worrying about who we ought to become, but we should instead take time to be who we already are at heart. We might rediscover a generous impulse, or a playful side we had forgotten, or simply an old affection for long walks. Our ego is often in the way of our true self, which must be found by being receptive to the outside world rather than focusing on some critical, too-ambitious internal image.  

It would be a mistake to take Laozi's teachings literally in all cases. To rejoice in the way everything happens would be foolish example wrongful imprisonment or accusation, being abused and tolerating injustice, addiction to drugs, pornography etc . 

5)  "Heaven is everlasting and earth is enduring."

Only those who love others are capable of being loved by others.The reason that they are everlasting is because they do not exist for themselves.Hence, they are long lived. For example - all the great leaders such as Dr B.R Ambedkar, Gandhi, Martin Luther, Nelson Mandela etc are still remembered because they dedicated their lives for the betterment of people and society. Thus, although the saint puts himself last, finds himself in the lead. Although he is not self-concerned, finds himself accomplished. It is because he is not focused on self-interests and hence can fulfill his true nature. 

Lao Tzu or Laozi ( Chinese Philosophy : Daoism)

Laozi or Lao Tzu is claimed to have existed in the 6th century BC in China. He was a Philosopher ,writer and founder of Taoism or Daoism Philosophy. 

Though very little is known about his life , popular claim is that he was a record keeper in the court of the central Chinese Zhou Dynasty in the 6th century B.C., and an older contemporary of Confucius. Some legends say he even met confucius and criticised him for his pride and ambition , and Confucius was so impressed by his criticism and advice that he described him as " a dragon that rides on the breath of the cloud and feeds on the purest yin and yan."

Fig : Laozi leaving the kingdom on his water buffalo

According to popular belief, when Zhou dynasty was on the verge of  decline, it became morally corrupt so Laozi decided to leave the place in search of serenity. While he was leaving and reached the Xiangu pass, which was the entrance to the state of Qin, he was stopped by the gatekeeper who recognised him and asked him for his wisdom . It was then he wrote the book "Daodejing " or "Tao Te Ching", this book laid foundations for the philosophy of Daoism.  After writing this, Lao Tzu is said to have crossed the border and disappeared from history, perhaps to become a hermit. In reality, the Tao Te Ching is likely to be the compilation of the works of many authors over time. 

What is Daoism?

 It is a philosophical or religious tradition of China,  which emphasises living in harmony with the Dao meaning Path or way . In Kanji, Dao is represented as  道 ie michi (road or way).   "Tao Te Ching" and "Zhaungzi " are the two most sacred philosophical texts of Daoist religion. 

 The Zhuangzi written by Zhaung Zou ,consists of a large collection of anecdotes, allegories, parables, and fables in which main themes are of spontaneity in action(wu wei) and of freedom from the human world and its conventions.  The fables and anecdotes in the text attempt to illustrate the falseness of human distinctions between good and bad, large and small, life and death, and human and nature. While other ancient Chinese philosophers focused on moral and personal duty, Zhuangzi promoted carefree wandering and becoming one with "the Way" (Dào 道) by following nature.  Zhuangzi believed that the key to true happiness was to free oneself from the world and its standards through the Daoist principle of "inaction" (Wu wei wúwéi 無為).

Tao Te Ching is somewhat like bible, it gives instructions (at times vague and ambiguous) on how to live a good life. It discusses the “Dao,” or the “way” of the world, which is also the path to virtue, happiness, and harmony. This “way” isn’t inherently confusing or difficult. Lao Tzu wrote, “the great Dao is very even, but people like to take by-ways.” In Lao Tzu’s view the problem with virtue isn’t that it is difficult or unnatural, but simply is that we resist the very simple path that might make us most content.

Laozi described Dao as 

"Tao (The Way) that can be spoken of is not the eternal Tao’

The name that can be named is not a eternal Name.

Nameless, is the origin of Heaven and Earth;

The named is the Mother of all things.

Thus, the constant void enables one to observe the true essence.

The constant being enables one to see the outward manifestations.

These two come paired from the same origin.

But when the essence is manifested,

It has a different name.

This same origin is called “The Profound Mystery.”

As profound the mystery as It can be,

It is the Gate to the essence of all life. "

Dao is considered as the source , pattern and everything that exists .  It is "the One, which is natural, spontaneous, eternal, nameless, and indescribable. It is at once the beginning of all things and the way in which all things pursue their course."  The Tao also is something that individuals can find immanent in themselves.The active expression of Tao is called Te (also spelled—and pronounced—De, or even Teh; ) often translated with Virtue or Power; 德; dé, in a sense that Te results from an individual living and cultivating the Tao.

Daoists interprets the universe as a thing that changes spontaneously without a conscious God or will driving it, and argues that humans can achieve ultimate happiness by living equally spontaneously. Daoist ethics vary depending on the particular school, but in general tend to emphasise wu wei (action without intention), "naturalness", simplicity, spontaneity, and the Three Treasures : 慈 "compassion", 儉 "frugality", and 不敢為天下先 "humility".  

There is a story about the three great Asian spiritual leaders (Lao Tzu, Confucius, and Buddha). All were meant to have tasted vinegar. Confucius found it sour, much like he found the world full of degenerate people, and Buddha found it bitter, much like he found the world to be full of suffering. But Lao Tzu found the world sweet. This is telling, because Lao Tzu’s philosophy tends to look at the apparent discord in the world and see an underlying harmony guided by the ‘Dao’. 

In order to follow the Dao, we need to go beyond simply reading and thinking about it. Instead we must learn wu wei ("action without intention" or “flowing” or “effortless action”), a sort of purposeful acceptance of the way of the Dao and live in harmony with it.

Fig : Buddha, Confucius and Laozi tasting vinegar 

Anaximander (Ionian School of Philosophy)

 

Anaximander: born in Miletus(Anatolia, Turkey) around the year 611 BCE . He belonged to the Milesian/Ionian School of Philosophy set up by Thales. He was a key figure in the Milesian School, considered as the student of Thales, teacher of Anaximenes and Pythagoras. He is considered as the first metaphysicist(due to his belief in apeiron), founder of astronomy, Father of Evolution Theory and he tried to observe and explain different aspects of the universe and its origins, and to describe the mechanics of celestial bodies in relation to the Earth. He made important contributions to cosmology, physics, geometry, meteorology and geography as well as to Metaphysics. 

Important Works of Anaximander:

Although he was among the earliest philosophers in the Western world to have actually written down his studies, only one fragment of his work remains and, by the time of Plato, his philosophy was apparently almost forgotten. It was revived by the works of Aristotle and his student Theophrastus.

a) Contributions in Geography:

He was interested in scientific pursuits and constructed a “gnomon” (a simple sundial). In his time, the gnomon was simply a vertical pillar or rod mounted on a horizontal plane. The position of its shadow on the plane indicated the time of day. As it moves through its apparent course, the Sun draws a curve with the tip of the projected shadow, which is shortest at noon, when pointing due south. The variation in the tip's position at noon indicates the solar time and the seasons; the shadow is longest on the winter solstice and shortest on the summer solstice.

He was a famous cartographer who made map for the Milesian sailors on the Black Sea and first to attempt the mapping of the whole world. He observed and explained different aspects of the universe, with a particular interest in its origin, claiming that nature is ruled by laws, just like human societies, and anything that disturbs the balance of nature does not last long. Anaximander explained rain as the product of humidity pumped up from the earth by the sun. He explained thunder and lightning, to the intervention of elements, rather than to divine causes. In his system, thunder results from the shock of clouds hitting each other; the loudness of the sound is proportionate with that of the shock. Thunder without lightning is the result of the wind being too weak to emit any flame, but strong enough to produce a sound. A flash of lightning without thunder is a jolt of the air that disperses and falls, allowing a less active fire to break free. Thunderbolts are the result of a thicker and more violent air flow.

b) A Proto Evolutionary Human Anthropology :

He is regarded as the most ancient proponent of theory of evolution. By noting the existence of fossils, he claimed that long ago animals sprang out of the sea. He considered that from warmed up water and earth emerged either fish or entirely fishlike animals. Inside these animals, men took form and embryos were held prisoners until puberty; only then, after these animals burst open, could men and women come out, now able to feed themselves. The reason for this is said to be that the human child needs long protection in order to survive.

c) Metaphysics (The Nature of Reality) :

Like Thales, he showed keen interest in cosmology. However, he differed with his master in his choice of the first principle. At a time when the Pre-Socratic Philosophers were pursuing various forms of Monism and searching for the one element that constitutes all things (each had a different solution to the identity of this element: water for Thales, air for Anaximenes, fire for 

Heraclitus), Anaximander argued that neither water nor any of the other elements can embrace all of the opposites found in nature (e.g. water can only be wet, never dry) and therefore cannot be the one primary substance or first principle of the universe. He says that it is something of infinite nature, eternal, unborn and has no origin ,  from which all the heavens and the worlds in them come into being. And the things from which existing things come into being are also the things into which they are destroyed, in accordance with what must be. For they give justice and reparation to one another for their injustice in accordance with the arrangement of time  (he speaks of them in this way in somewhat poetical words). It is clear that he observed the change of the four elements into one another and was unwilling to make any one of them the underlying stuff but rather chose something else apart from them. He accounts for coming into being not by the alteration of the element, but by the separating off of the opposites by the eternal motion.

Thus, he judged that, although not directly perceptible to us, the only substance which could explain all the opposites he saw around him, is apeiron. 

For Anaximander, the Unifying Principle of Diversity or archē is ápeiron . It is  disputed whether the apeiron should be interpreted as spatially or temporarily without limits, or perhaps as that which has no qualifications, or as that which is inexhaustible. Some scholars have even defended the meaning “that which is not experienced,” by relating the Greek word “apeiron” not to “peras” (“boundary,” “limit”), but to “perao” (“to experience,” “to apperceive”). The suggestion, however, is almost irresistible that Greek philosophy, by making the Boundless into the principle of all things, has started on a high level of abstraction. On the other hand, some have pointed out that this use of “apeiron” is atypical for Greek thought, which was occupied with limit, symmetry and harmony. The Pythagoreans placed the boundless (the “apeiron”) on the list of negative things, and for Aristotle, too, perfection became aligned with limit (Greek: “peras”), and thus “apeiron” with imperfection. 

d) Astronomy : 

Anaximander made three important astronomical speculations which make up the core of Anaximander’s astronomy, and meant a tremendous jump forward and constitute the origin of  Western concept of the universe. They are : 

(1) the celestial bodies make full circles and also pass beneath the earth : That the celestial bodies make full circles is not something he could have observed, but a conclusion he must have drawn. We can see – at the northern hemisphere, like Anaximander – the stars around the Polar star making full circles, and we can also observe that the more southerly stars sometimes disappear behind the horizon. We may argue that the stars of which we see only arcs in reality also describe full circles, just like those near the Polar star. Similarly he observed  that the arcs described by sun and the moon are sometimes bigger and sometimes smaller, and we are able to predict exactly where they will rise the next day. Thus it was a daring conclusion, precisely because it necessarily entailed the concept of the earth hanging free and unsupported in space. 

(2) the earth floats free and unsupported in space : Anaximander boldly asserts that the earth floats free in the center of the universe, unsupported by water (as proposed by Thales) , pillars, or whatever. Apparently, he drew this bold conclusion from his assumption that the celestial bodies make full circles.  More than 2500 years later astronauts really saw the unsupported earth floating in space and thus provided the ultimate confirmation of Anaximander’s conception. The shape of the earth, according to Anaximander, is cylindrical, like a column-drum, its diameter being three times its height. The flat top forming the inhabited world, surrounded by a circular oceanic mass. This theory allowed for the concept that celestial bodies could pass under or around it, and provided a better explanation than Thales’ claim of a world floating on water (then what would contain this ocean?)

(3) the celestial bodies lie behind one another : It was believed that the celestial bodies are attached on a celestial vault, a kind of dome or tent, onto which all of the celestial bodies are attached, at the same distance, like in a planetarium. One meets this kind of conception in Homer, when he speaks of the brazen or iron heaven, which is apparently conceived of as something solid, being supported by Atlas, or by pillars. When Anaximander looked at the heaven, he imagined, for the first time in history, space. Anaximander’s vision implied depth in the universe, that is, the idea that the celestial bodies lie behind one another.

Anaximander also said that heavenly bodies are spaced at varying distances ie the idea of orbits . Also he considered celestial bodies as chariot wheels. The rims of these wheels are of opaque vapor, they are hollow, and filled with fire. This fire shines through at openings in the wheels, and this is what we see as the sun, the moon, or the stars. Sometimes, the opening of the sun wheel closes: then we observe an eclipse. The opening of the moon wheel regularly closes and opens again, which accounts for the phases of the moon. It is quite certain that the question of why the celestial bodies do not fall upon the earth must have been as serious a problem to Anaximander as the question of why the earth does not fall. The explanation of the celestial bodies as wheels, then, provides an answer to both questions. The celestial bodies have no reason whatsoever to move otherwise than in circles around the earth, as each point on them is always as far from the earth as any other. 

Anaximander built a celestial sphere(as shown in fig 1,2 and 3), and his work on astronomy shows that he must have observed the inclination of the celestial sphere in relation to the plane of the Earth to explain the seasons. He also speculated on the plurality of worlds or multiverse or parallel universes, which places him close to the Atomists and the Epicureans who, more than a century later, also claimed that an infinity of worlds appeared and disappeared.

Conclusion :  What we know of him, we may say that he was one of the greatest minds that ever lived. By speculating and arguing about the “Apeiron - boundless” he was the first metaphysician. By drawing a map of the world he was the first geographer. But above all, by boldly speculating about the universe he broke with the ancient image of the celestial vault and became the discoverer of the Western world-picture.

"Men first appeared as fish. When they were able to help themselves they took to land."

Thales of Miletus (Father of Western Philosophy)

Thales Of Miletus is regarded as father of Western Philosophy or the first Philosopher by many philosophers. The exact date of his birth is unknown. Probably, he must have existed in the early part of the 6th century BCE. He is said to have predicted the eclipse of the sun mentioned by Herodotus. Since, that eclipse occurred on May 28th, 585BCE, it is one of the reasons to believe that he must have begun his philosophical career in the early part of 6th Century BCE. He was a philosopher, mathematician, astronomer, and one of the Seven Sages of  Greece. The aphorism "Know thyself" has been attributed to Thales (as well as to at least six other ancient Greek sages). He is also credited with the construction of an almanac and the introduction of the Phoenician practice of steering a ship’s course by the Little Bear. In mathematics, Thales used geometry to calculate the heights of pyramids and the distance of ships from the shore. He is the first known individual to use deductive reasoning applied to geometry, by deriving four corollaries to Thales theorem. He is the first known individual to whom a mathematical discovery has been attributed. 

Thales is believed to have founded the Milesian/Ionian School of Philosophy. The Ionians (Thales, Anaximenes, Anaximander and Heraclitus) are famous not for what they achieved, but what they attempted. They were the first to explain phenomenon of the world and universe by natural causes and sense experience, independent of mythology. The fundamental question raised by all of them was with regard to the idea of essence. They enquired what the basal substance was and tried to answer in terms of evidence gathered from sense perception. Ionian school is termed as 'sensualist' because in its attempt to answer the being versus becoming question as well as in its effort to discover the primary substance of the universe, they relied on the sense knowledge and sense observation rather than reason. Generally speaking, the Ionians tend to hold that becoming alone is real and that being is an illusion.

Philosophical works:

 There is little information about Thales' philosophical doctrine since he did not commit his thoughts to writing. Some sources say that he left no writings; others that he wrote at least two works, "On the Solstice" and "On the Equinox" (neither of which have survived). Thanks to Aristotle, whatever little we know comes mainly from him. 

 According to Aristotle, Thales taught two fundamental philosophical ideas. They are:

1) the water is the first absolute principle or primordial substance or arche i.e. "Everything is made up of water." 

2) The soul is the principal motor. 

 How did Thales arrive at the conclusion that the water is first absolute principle? Besides the mere fact that he lived in a place virtually surrounded by water, Aristotle supplies the following reason: Thales needed to establish a first principle from which to work, so he posed the question, “What is the basic material of the cosmos?”

 The idea that everything in the universe can be ultimately reduced to a single substance is the theory of monism, and Thales and his followers were the first to propose it within Western philosophy. "The fundamental material of the universe had to be something out of which everything else could be formed, as well as being essential to life, and capable of motion and therefore of change." 

Thales observed that water is essential for sustenance of all living beings and that it moves and changes, assuming different forms – from liquid to solid ice and vaporous mist. So, he concludes that all matter regardless of its apparent properties, must be water in some stage of its transformation.

Though the explanation might look simple to our intellectual minds, his attempt was to give a rational account of the principle of things. Thus, he broke away from myths and poet-theologians. 

The second philosophical idea of Thales according to Aristotle is the soul as the principle of movement. Thales seems to have held the soul to be a motive force, since he said that the magnet has a soul in it because it moves the iron. From his observation of magnetism and electricity, he concluded that "the power to move other things without the mover itself changing was a characteristic of "life", so that a magnet and amber must therefore be alive in some way (in that they have animation or the power to act). " Certain thinkers said that the soul is intermingled in the whole universe, and it is perhaps for this reason that Thales came to the opinion that all things are full of gods. The best way to understand “all things are full of gods” is to say that everything is fundamentally alive. Not only magnetic stones are endowed with souls but everything else, the whole universe is impregnated with life. If so, he argued, there is no difference between the living and the dead. If all things were alive, they must also have souls or divinities (a natural belief of his time), and the end result of this argument was an almost total removal of mind from substance, opening the door to an innovative non-divine principle of action.

 Thales recognised a single transcendental God (Monism), who has neither beginning nor end, but who expresses himself through other gods (Polytheism). His idea of justice included both the letter of the law and the spirit of the law (e.g. adultery and perjury about it in court are equally bad).

 His political views were generally in favor of a benign tyranny, rather than democracy (which most thinkers of his time distrusted as an inefficient and unreliable system). 

 How does Thales earn his place as the first Greek philosopher? It is from the fact that he conceives the notion of unity in difference. While holding firm the idea of unity, he philosophically accounted for diversity.

His famous quotes and moral advice: 

"We should expect the same support from our children that we give to our parents"; 

"We should not let talk influence us against those we have come to trust."

"We should not do ourselves that for which we blame others." 

"A happy man is one who is "healthy in body, resourceful in soul and of a readily teachable nature".