Parmenides' Way Of Truth

Parmenides was born in Elea, probably in the second half of the 6th century BCE. He is regarded as the founder of Eleatic School of Philosophy. Eleatic’s preferred to make use of their reason to respond to the intriguing questions of their time rather than merely relying on the sense experience like the Milesians. Parmenides is the first to employ deductive, a priori arguments to justify his claims, he competes with Aristotle for the title “Father of Logic.”

Parmenides’ only work is a hexameter poem entitled “On Nature” of which only fragments have survived. It consists of three sections i.e. Prologue, Way of Truth or Reality (Alétheia) and Way of Seeming or opinions (or Doxa in Greek). The Proem (prologue) features a young man on a cosmic (perhaps spiritual) journey in search of enlightenment. The second section i.e. truth or  Alétheia is the main philosophy of Parmenides which denies change, motion, and differentiation. Way of seeming or Doxa  concludes the poem with a theogonical and cosmogonical account of the world, which paradoxically employs the very phenomena (motion, change, and so forth) that Reality seems to have denied. But he says  Doxa is supposed to be representative of the mistaken “opinions of mortals,” and thus is to be rejected on some level.

Way of Truth or reality:

Parmenides’ main idea is that All things are One i.e. Being, therefore, he is a true monist. He is also a true rationalist because he trusts mind or logos over sense experience for example: he says Heraclitus’ idea of change i.e. coming to be and perishing and motion are illusion, which is contrary to our daily experiences. What is being? Why did he see being as the unifying principle of everything else? What made him think that change is an illusion? Why does he think that being cannot be differentiated into different objects with characteristics?

Pramenides’ argument is based on two premises:

   1) You have to make a choice between what exists i.e. Being (is) or not-being (is not).

   2) You think (either being or not-being)

Parmenides says  in fragment. 8.5-21, that What Is must be “ungenerated and deathless”: but not ever was it, nor yet will it be, since it is now together entire,/ single, continuous; for what birth will you seek of it?/ How, whence increased? From not being I shall not allow/ you to say or to think: for not to be said and not to be thought/ is it that it is not. And indeed what need could have aroused it/ later rather than before, beginning from nothing, to grow?/ Thus it must either be altogether or not at all./ Nor ever from not being will the force of conviction allow/ something to come to be beyond it: on account of this neither to be born/ nor to die has Justice allowed it, having loosed its bonds,/ but she holds it fast. And the decision about these matter lies in this:/ it is or it is not; but it has in fact been decided, just as is necessary,/ to leave the one unthought and nameless (for no true/ way is it), and <it has been decided> that the one that it is indeed is genuine./ And how could What Is be hereafter? And how might it have been?/ For if it was, it is not, nor if ever it is going to be:/ thus generation is extinguished and destruction unheard of.

To understand his philosophy, we need to ponder over these questions for a while:            

1) Nothing exists

2) Nothing does not exist

3) Where do we come from?

Parmenides’ chief interest is What really exists?

The answer he comes up with is esti i.e. being. All the different things we see around us male-female, trees, birds, animals, mountains and rivers etc they don’t really exist but just seem or appear to exist. The only that exists is being or esti.

What does he mean by being?

Parmenides’ concept of being is univocal. It does not refer to any concrete perceptible reality but only to being as such, to the being which everything possesses since all of them exist. This is the being which encompasses everything –the whole reality.

Where do we come from?

If we think like this: Before being born we were not-being, we become being or exist when we are born and return to not-being when we die.

Then Parmenides points out that there’s a problem of making an assumption that “nothing” or not-being exists. If there was a not-being then not-being would be being which is absurd. Thus, we cannot come from not-being or nothing because something cannot come from nothing or not-being. You can either go from something to another thing or if both (being and not-being) exists, you cannot go from existence to non-existence as there’s no such thing as non-existence or not-being, whatever is, is(being).

Therefore, he describes being as unbegotten and incorruptible; it cannot come from non-being, because non-being is nothing, and from nothing, nothing comes; it cannot come from being because being exists, and what already exists need not be brought into existence. This means that the being has no beginning and no end; it is immutable, perfect, homogeneous and complete, with no need for anything. This follows that time, space and motion are not possible, they are just opinions of mortals. 

What made him think that change is an illusion?

Parmenides rejects the Heraclitus’ idea of change because change (i.e. ceasing to be in one state and coming to be in another state) involves the existence of not being. Not-being is not a thinkable thought and if not-being is not a thinkable thought then coming to be and perishing i.e. change is not a thinkable thought either. As for things to change, we have to make this weird confusion of being and non-being first. You have to cease to exist from your current state i.e. become not-being and then come into existence in order to come to be in another state.

Why does he think that being cannot be differentiated into different objects with characteristics?

There is no plurality of things (ie mountains, rivers, animals, birds and plants etc)  because there is no change. For multiple things to exist, don't they have to be separate from one another?  If you say an empty space separates things from one another then what is this empty space? or there is an absence of things present between me and all the things that aren't me. Then what is this absence of things(empty space) that is present? Isn't this just another fancy way of saying not-being is(exists)? 

Thus, we can conclude that there is no plurality of things there is just one thing i.e. being. Therefore, there is only one sensible thing we can say about the Universe : It is (that's it). What it's like ? Just, just is and it's uniform, not more in one place and less in another. It's a uniform well rounded sphere of being just like sitting there humming with the music of the spheres i.e. B flat note. This is the truth according to Parmenides.

Parmenides’ says whenever we think of something either imaginary or real we think of being. You can’t think of nothing/not-being i.e. thought having no content, even when you can’t think of anything you imagine a black space. So, if you are thinking, the only thing you could think of is being.

To investigate the difficulties when we think of not-being exists we can look at the passage from “Rosencratz and Guilderstone are dead” by Tom Stoppard:

“Rosencrantz: We might as well be dead. Do you think death could possibly be a boat?
Guildenstern: No, no, no... Death is...not. Death isn't. You take my meaning. Death is the ultimate negative. Not-being. You can't not-be on a boat.
Rosencrantz: I've frequently not been on boats.
Guildenstern: No, no, no--what you've been is not on boats.”

Parmenides’ claims that being is apprehended by the intellect alone. The senses grasp the multiplicity of the sensible; but the intelligence sees beyond appearances, and knows what lies behind them, only one reality: being. “Thought and that by which thought is made possible are the same thing; for thought is expressed in being, and hence, without being, there would be no thought. In other words, being and thought are correlative terms since being only reveals itself to thought and it is this revelation that constitutes the truth. i.e. same things exists for thinking and for being.

 

The Riddler Heraclitus

Heraclitus of Ephesus (c. 535 - 475 B.C)

was a pre Socratic Philosopher from Ephesus, on the Ionian coast of modern day Turkey. He regarded himself as self taught and pioneer of wisdom. He propounded a distinctive theory which he expressed in oracular language therefore, he was sometimes known as the "Riddler" or "Obscure" for the deliberate difficulty and unclearness of his teachings. He could be categorised as the first Existential philosopher, whose ideas have been revitalized in a more systematic and acceptable way in modern philosophy. He is best known for his quote "We both step and do not step in the same river. We are and not". One interpretation is, it is not possible to step twice into the same river, according to Heraclitus, nor to touch mortal substance twice in any condition: by the swiftness and speed of its change, it scatters and collects itself again - or rather, it is not again and later but simultaneously that it comes together and departs, approaches and retires.

Life

Little is known of his life, the main source of information about him is accounts of notable doxographer Diogenes Laertius. He was born in Ephesus(modern day Turkey) in an rich aristocratic family. He advocated the kingship in favour of his brother, and had no interest in politics and power. As a youth , he was a prodigious and he claimed to have taught himself everything by a process of self enquiry.

He deliberately made his teachings obscure because he believed that truth can only be found by those who are willing to dive deeper in enquiry of nature or self questioning. He is also sometimes known as the "Weeping Philosopher" because he was a misanthrope and a loner which resulted in depression, later in life he wandered the mountains eating only grass and herbs. 

Philosophical ideas

1) Flux and Unity of opposites :

"All things come into being through opposition and all are in flux like a river."

Heraclitus says that the very nature of life is flux, is change, and that to resist this change is to resist the essence of our existence. He believes flux and unity or contending of opposites are necessary for life similar to yin and yang theory of Chinese philosophy. He observes that human condition is chiefly characterised by strife, by the coming together and pulling away of opposing forces. From the strain of binding opposites comes harmony and change gives rest. He criticises Homer who said, " would that strife might perish from among god and men", 

 for there would not be harmony without opposites ie high and low notes , nor living things without male and female, which are opposites. We must recognize that war is common, strife is justice and all things come into being and pass away through strife. While people lament this strife equating with suffering because they lack understanding as  people prefer being oblivious to the logos, ignorant, asleep in their own private worlds and depend on their senses i.e eyes and ears for enquiry about the self and the world .

"Though the logos is as I have said, men always fail to comprehend it, both before they hear it and when they hear it for the first time. For though all things come into being in accordance with this logos, they seem like men without experiences, though in fact they do have experience both of words and deeds such as I have set forth, distinguishing each thing in accordance with its nature and declaring what it is. But other men are as unaware of what they do when awake as they are when they are asleep. " ~Heraclitus

In Greek, Logos means `the word' but also means `to speak' and can also refer to `conveying thought' and the Logos of Heraclitus may most neatly fit the latter meaning. The logos is natural, universal, rational thought by which universe came into being by which it is maintained .The Logos constantly `conveys thought' to human beings but the message is missed because of the consistent refusal of people to recognize the natural order in their own lives.

“Men forget where the way leads and what they meet with every day seems strange to them. We should not act and speak like men asleep.” 

Heraclitus compared most people understanding to those that of asleep. Only the philosopher those who pursue truth is fully awake and fully alive. He quotes "Thinking is  a sacred disease and sight is deceptive." "It is necessary to take what is common as our guide, however though this is universal, the many lives as if each individual has his own private wisdom." 

"Every one of us gladly turns away from his problems; if possible, they must not be mentioned, or, better still, their existence is denied. We wish to make our lives simple, certain, and smooth, and for that reason problems are taboo. We want to have certainties and no doubts - results and no experiments- without even seeing that certainties can arise only through doubt and results only through experiment."

For Heraclitus, logos is an ever-living fire, which is observable in nature and yet human beings resist the natural movement of life and cling to what is known and considered safe. This clinging is unnatural and one's inability to embrace change and accept conflict as natural and necessary part of one's life causes pain and disappointment one so often experience. One causes the problems in life through refusal to accept life for what it is -- flux.

“The kosmos works by harmony of tensions, like lyre and bow. Good and evil are one. On the one hand God sees all as well, fair, and good; on the other hand a human being sees injustice here, justice there. Justice in our minds is strife. We cannot help but see war makes us as we are.”

“People do not know how what is at variance agrees with itself. It is an attunement of opposite tensions like that of the bow and the Iyre." Heraclitus believes that an unapparent connection links many things more firmly than an apparent and concrete one. He observes that "Nature loves to hide"  stating that a hidden and even secret harmony exists, which is more precious than an obvious one and an unapparent harmony is stronger than an apparent one. A harmony exists even if there is an apparent competition between the opposites, since any competition conceals or hides the attraction and attraction induces union. Thus, the nature likes to hold its secrets.

2) Wisdom (Theory of Knowledge or Epistemology) and Moral Philosophy:

 

"Much learning does not teach understanding."

"A knowledge of many things does not teach one to have intelligence but those who love wisdom must investigate many things." The profound knowledge based on experience and gained by enquiry into a wide spectrum of things may help in uncovering the reality and truth which mostly lie concealed. Wisdom is apart from the mediocrity, it is isolated from the exterior influences, is a unique experience. However, real knowledge, the absolute truth is not human but divine since human wisdom is inefficient even primitive in comparison with the divine one.

"Wisdom is the oneness of mind that guides and permeates all things." Those who speak with insight should base themselves firmly on that which is common to all. Thus, wisdom consists in telling truth, as well as behaving and acting in accordance with the real nature of things. Heraclitus says,

 "We are most nearly ourselves when we achieve the seriousness of a child at play."

All people ought to know themselves, being even-minded, since all humans have the capacity to self-knowing and sound thinking.Otherwise, it is prudential and rational for men to conceal their ignorance.

3) Existential Principles: Repetition and Relativity

The world as a whole is an eternal repeated sequences of cycles, each of which emerges out of fire and ends in fire. He quotes, "this world .... ever was, and is, and shall be an ever-living fire, in measures being kindled and in measures being going out." By  cosmic rule, a day yields night and a night yields day. The summer yields winter and the winter yields summer. All things change and there is a continuous repetition of physical phenomena.

Heraclitus claims that relativity dominates on every phenomena. Thinks are whole and not whole, being brought together and been separated.Some are consonant and some dissonant. The Universe is a continuous state of dynamic equilibrium, where as at the same time all things are one. For example , the road up and down is one and the same. In the circumference of a circle beginning and end are the same. Even good and ill are one. Everyday seems equal to the rest.He quotes, 

"Immortals are mortals, mortal are immortals, living their death, dying their life."

"the universe is divisible and indivisible,  generated and ungenerated, mortal and immortal, Word and Eternity, Father and Son, God and Justice."

According to heraclitus, The fire, light and truth are always unchanged and eternal since they are original and genuine in their existence. 

The sun which is an everlasting fire, illuminates the entirety, travels the heaven continuously and never oversteps its measures in its course thus, plays a fundamental role in timing, setting the boundaries of the morning and evening. Timing is a function of lightning, personal time or interior time is changeable parameter which depends upon the mental condition of the person. The spiritual light illuminates the mind on the rhythms of of personal internal life. The lack of consciousness entails lack of personal time and profound dementia entails timeless time. If man cannot see the internal sun, he would live in darkness. Thus, seeing is grasping in light whereas the spiritual seeing is a grasping in truth. Eyes are more accurate witness of the reality than ears, however both of them are poor witnessess for men who possess uncomprehending souls.Human being is the one who can kindle fire, who understands the power of light and who is able to touch the truth and be illuminated by divine light.

4) Soul 

For Heraclitus, 

the soul is a part of the omnipresent logos, where the essence of the individual soul is to be found in its ability to get as close to logos as possible. This soul is fiery in nature, generated out of other substances, but is limitless in dimension.  "A dry psyche, a soul liberated from passions, is wiser and the best". Psyche is the source not only of life, but also of reason and rational control. The soul should be purified from passions vices and particularly from insolence since there is greatest need to extinguish insolence than a blazing fire, but we must admit that it is always difficult to fight passion. He quotes, "It is difficult to fight against pleasure than anger." 

According to Heraclitus, it seems soul is not a permanent entity and is always subjected to change. He quotes, "To soul it is death to become water, to water death to become earth, but from earth water is born, and from water soul." The soul is always changing, it keeps dying and becoming alive again even during one's lifetime. The individual soul can"fall asleep", and thus lose its connection with the pervasive logos, which would mean its separation from the source of the "ever-living fire", and thus, separation from life and a journey into death. The essence of soul is reflected in its ability to get closer to the logos. But logos of heraclitus is eternal and therefore one may achieve immortality by being closer to the logos.

An excellent man is equal to ten thousand. The best ones chose the path of wisdom and desire a name honored forever. He/she focuses on everlasting values rather than transient ones. The character of person plays a determining role on his\her fate. The souls of the best (honest,righteous and virtuous),  seem to be assured of deification and immortality.

Anaximander (Ionian School of Philosophy)

 

Anaximander: born in Miletus(Anatolia, Turkey) around the year 611 BCE . He belonged to the Milesian/Ionian School of Philosophy set up by Thales. He was a key figure in the Milesian School, considered as the student of Thales, teacher of Anaximenes and Pythagoras. He is considered as the first metaphysicist(due to his belief in apeiron), founder of astronomy, Father of Evolution Theory and he tried to observe and explain different aspects of the universe and its origins, and to describe the mechanics of celestial bodies in relation to the Earth. He made important contributions to cosmology, physics, geometry, meteorology and geography as well as to Metaphysics. 

Important Works of Anaximander:

Although he was among the earliest philosophers in the Western world to have actually written down his studies, only one fragment of his work remains and, by the time of Plato, his philosophy was apparently almost forgotten. It was revived by the works of Aristotle and his student Theophrastus.

a) Contributions in Geography:

He was interested in scientific pursuits and constructed a “gnomon” (a simple sundial). In his time, the gnomon was simply a vertical pillar or rod mounted on a horizontal plane. The position of its shadow on the plane indicated the time of day. As it moves through its apparent course, the Sun draws a curve with the tip of the projected shadow, which is shortest at noon, when pointing due south. The variation in the tip's position at noon indicates the solar time and the seasons; the shadow is longest on the winter solstice and shortest on the summer solstice.

He was a famous cartographer who made map for the Milesian sailors on the Black Sea and first to attempt the mapping of the whole world. He observed and explained different aspects of the universe, with a particular interest in its origin, claiming that nature is ruled by laws, just like human societies, and anything that disturbs the balance of nature does not last long. Anaximander explained rain as the product of humidity pumped up from the earth by the sun. He explained thunder and lightning, to the intervention of elements, rather than to divine causes. In his system, thunder results from the shock of clouds hitting each other; the loudness of the sound is proportionate with that of the shock. Thunder without lightning is the result of the wind being too weak to emit any flame, but strong enough to produce a sound. A flash of lightning without thunder is a jolt of the air that disperses and falls, allowing a less active fire to break free. Thunderbolts are the result of a thicker and more violent air flow.

b) A Proto Evolutionary Human Anthropology :

He is regarded as the most ancient proponent of theory of evolution. By noting the existence of fossils, he claimed that long ago animals sprang out of the sea. He considered that from warmed up water and earth emerged either fish or entirely fishlike animals. Inside these animals, men took form and embryos were held prisoners until puberty; only then, after these animals burst open, could men and women come out, now able to feed themselves. The reason for this is said to be that the human child needs long protection in order to survive.

c) Metaphysics (The Nature of Reality) :

Like Thales, he showed keen interest in cosmology. However, he differed with his master in his choice of the first principle. At a time when the Pre-Socratic Philosophers were pursuing various forms of Monism and searching for the one element that constitutes all things (each had a different solution to the identity of this element: water for Thales, air for Anaximenes, fire for 

Heraclitus), Anaximander argued that neither water nor any of the other elements can embrace all of the opposites found in nature (e.g. water can only be wet, never dry) and therefore cannot be the one primary substance or first principle of the universe. He says that it is something of infinite nature, eternal, unborn and has no origin ,  from which all the heavens and the worlds in them come into being. And the things from which existing things come into being are also the things into which they are destroyed, in accordance with what must be. For they give justice and reparation to one another for their injustice in accordance with the arrangement of time  (he speaks of them in this way in somewhat poetical words). It is clear that he observed the change of the four elements into one another and was unwilling to make any one of them the underlying stuff but rather chose something else apart from them. He accounts for coming into being not by the alteration of the element, but by the separating off of the opposites by the eternal motion.

Thus, he judged that, although not directly perceptible to us, the only substance which could explain all the opposites he saw around him, is apeiron. 

For Anaximander, the Unifying Principle of Diversity or archē is ápeiron . It is  disputed whether the apeiron should be interpreted as spatially or temporarily without limits, or perhaps as that which has no qualifications, or as that which is inexhaustible. Some scholars have even defended the meaning “that which is not experienced,” by relating the Greek word “apeiron” not to “peras” (“boundary,” “limit”), but to “perao” (“to experience,” “to apperceive”). The suggestion, however, is almost irresistible that Greek philosophy, by making the Boundless into the principle of all things, has started on a high level of abstraction. On the other hand, some have pointed out that this use of “apeiron” is atypical for Greek thought, which was occupied with limit, symmetry and harmony. The Pythagoreans placed the boundless (the “apeiron”) on the list of negative things, and for Aristotle, too, perfection became aligned with limit (Greek: “peras”), and thus “apeiron” with imperfection. 

d) Astronomy : 

Anaximander made three important astronomical speculations which make up the core of Anaximander’s astronomy, and meant a tremendous jump forward and constitute the origin of  Western concept of the universe. They are : 

(1) the celestial bodies make full circles and also pass beneath the earth : That the celestial bodies make full circles is not something he could have observed, but a conclusion he must have drawn. We can see – at the northern hemisphere, like Anaximander – the stars around the Polar star making full circles, and we can also observe that the more southerly stars sometimes disappear behind the horizon. We may argue that the stars of which we see only arcs in reality also describe full circles, just like those near the Polar star. Similarly he observed  that the arcs described by sun and the moon are sometimes bigger and sometimes smaller, and we are able to predict exactly where they will rise the next day. Thus it was a daring conclusion, precisely because it necessarily entailed the concept of the earth hanging free and unsupported in space. 

(2) the earth floats free and unsupported in space : Anaximander boldly asserts that the earth floats free in the center of the universe, unsupported by water (as proposed by Thales) , pillars, or whatever. Apparently, he drew this bold conclusion from his assumption that the celestial bodies make full circles.  More than 2500 years later astronauts really saw the unsupported earth floating in space and thus provided the ultimate confirmation of Anaximander’s conception. The shape of the earth, according to Anaximander, is cylindrical, like a column-drum, its diameter being three times its height. The flat top forming the inhabited world, surrounded by a circular oceanic mass. This theory allowed for the concept that celestial bodies could pass under or around it, and provided a better explanation than Thales’ claim of a world floating on water (then what would contain this ocean?)

(3) the celestial bodies lie behind one another : It was believed that the celestial bodies are attached on a celestial vault, a kind of dome or tent, onto which all of the celestial bodies are attached, at the same distance, like in a planetarium. One meets this kind of conception in Homer, when he speaks of the brazen or iron heaven, which is apparently conceived of as something solid, being supported by Atlas, or by pillars. When Anaximander looked at the heaven, he imagined, for the first time in history, space. Anaximander’s vision implied depth in the universe, that is, the idea that the celestial bodies lie behind one another.

Anaximander also said that heavenly bodies are spaced at varying distances ie the idea of orbits . Also he considered celestial bodies as chariot wheels. The rims of these wheels are of opaque vapor, they are hollow, and filled with fire. This fire shines through at openings in the wheels, and this is what we see as the sun, the moon, or the stars. Sometimes, the opening of the sun wheel closes: then we observe an eclipse. The opening of the moon wheel regularly closes and opens again, which accounts for the phases of the moon. It is quite certain that the question of why the celestial bodies do not fall upon the earth must have been as serious a problem to Anaximander as the question of why the earth does not fall. The explanation of the celestial bodies as wheels, then, provides an answer to both questions. The celestial bodies have no reason whatsoever to move otherwise than in circles around the earth, as each point on them is always as far from the earth as any other. 

Anaximander built a celestial sphere(as shown in fig 1,2 and 3), and his work on astronomy shows that he must have observed the inclination of the celestial sphere in relation to the plane of the Earth to explain the seasons. He also speculated on the plurality of worlds or multiverse or parallel universes, which places him close to the Atomists and the Epicureans who, more than a century later, also claimed that an infinity of worlds appeared and disappeared.

Conclusion :  What we know of him, we may say that he was one of the greatest minds that ever lived. By speculating and arguing about the “Apeiron - boundless” he was the first metaphysician. By drawing a map of the world he was the first geographer. But above all, by boldly speculating about the universe he broke with the ancient image of the celestial vault and became the discoverer of the Western world-picture.

"Men first appeared as fish. When they were able to help themselves they took to land."

Thales of Miletus (Father of Western Philosophy)

Thales Of Miletus is regarded as father of Western Philosophy or the first Philosopher by many philosophers. The exact date of his birth is unknown. Probably, he must have existed in the early part of the 6th century BCE. He is said to have predicted the eclipse of the sun mentioned by Herodotus. Since, that eclipse occurred on May 28th, 585BCE, it is one of the reasons to believe that he must have begun his philosophical career in the early part of 6th Century BCE. He was a philosopher, mathematician, astronomer, and one of the Seven Sages of  Greece. The aphorism "Know thyself" has been attributed to Thales (as well as to at least six other ancient Greek sages). He is also credited with the construction of an almanac and the introduction of the Phoenician practice of steering a ship’s course by the Little Bear. In mathematics, Thales used geometry to calculate the heights of pyramids and the distance of ships from the shore. He is the first known individual to use deductive reasoning applied to geometry, by deriving four corollaries to Thales theorem. He is the first known individual to whom a mathematical discovery has been attributed. 

Thales is believed to have founded the Milesian/Ionian School of Philosophy. The Ionians (Thales, Anaximenes, Anaximander and Heraclitus) are famous not for what they achieved, but what they attempted. They were the first to explain phenomenon of the world and universe by natural causes and sense experience, independent of mythology. The fundamental question raised by all of them was with regard to the idea of essence. They enquired what the basal substance was and tried to answer in terms of evidence gathered from sense perception. Ionian school is termed as 'sensualist' because in its attempt to answer the being versus becoming question as well as in its effort to discover the primary substance of the universe, they relied on the sense knowledge and sense observation rather than reason. Generally speaking, the Ionians tend to hold that becoming alone is real and that being is an illusion.

Philosophical works:

 There is little information about Thales' philosophical doctrine since he did not commit his thoughts to writing. Some sources say that he left no writings; others that he wrote at least two works, "On the Solstice" and "On the Equinox" (neither of which have survived). Thanks to Aristotle, whatever little we know comes mainly from him. 

 According to Aristotle, Thales taught two fundamental philosophical ideas. They are:

1) the water is the first absolute principle or primordial substance or arche i.e. "Everything is made up of water." 

2) The soul is the principal motor. 

 How did Thales arrive at the conclusion that the water is first absolute principle? Besides the mere fact that he lived in a place virtually surrounded by water, Aristotle supplies the following reason: Thales needed to establish a first principle from which to work, so he posed the question, “What is the basic material of the cosmos?”

 The idea that everything in the universe can be ultimately reduced to a single substance is the theory of monism, and Thales and his followers were the first to propose it within Western philosophy. "The fundamental material of the universe had to be something out of which everything else could be formed, as well as being essential to life, and capable of motion and therefore of change." 

Thales observed that water is essential for sustenance of all living beings and that it moves and changes, assuming different forms – from liquid to solid ice and vaporous mist. So, he concludes that all matter regardless of its apparent properties, must be water in some stage of its transformation.

Though the explanation might look simple to our intellectual minds, his attempt was to give a rational account of the principle of things. Thus, he broke away from myths and poet-theologians. 

The second philosophical idea of Thales according to Aristotle is the soul as the principle of movement. Thales seems to have held the soul to be a motive force, since he said that the magnet has a soul in it because it moves the iron. From his observation of magnetism and electricity, he concluded that "the power to move other things without the mover itself changing was a characteristic of "life", so that a magnet and amber must therefore be alive in some way (in that they have animation or the power to act). " Certain thinkers said that the soul is intermingled in the whole universe, and it is perhaps for this reason that Thales came to the opinion that all things are full of gods. The best way to understand “all things are full of gods” is to say that everything is fundamentally alive. Not only magnetic stones are endowed with souls but everything else, the whole universe is impregnated with life. If so, he argued, there is no difference between the living and the dead. If all things were alive, they must also have souls or divinities (a natural belief of his time), and the end result of this argument was an almost total removal of mind from substance, opening the door to an innovative non-divine principle of action.

 Thales recognised a single transcendental God (Monism), who has neither beginning nor end, but who expresses himself through other gods (Polytheism). His idea of justice included both the letter of the law and the spirit of the law (e.g. adultery and perjury about it in court are equally bad).

 His political views were generally in favor of a benign tyranny, rather than democracy (which most thinkers of his time distrusted as an inefficient and unreliable system). 

 How does Thales earn his place as the first Greek philosopher? It is from the fact that he conceives the notion of unity in difference. While holding firm the idea of unity, he philosophically accounted for diversity.

His famous quotes and moral advice: 

"We should expect the same support from our children that we give to our parents"; 

"We should not let talk influence us against those we have come to trust."

"We should not do ourselves that for which we blame others." 

"A happy man is one who is "healthy in body, resourceful in soul and of a readily teachable nature".